Theories of Early Learning

This paper consists of early theories of learning and development. It starts out with the basics of learning and development and ends with the theories of a few scientists. The first theory is ACT, introduced by John Anderson. ACT is an acronym for Adaptive Character of Thought. The second theory is The Elaboration Theory, introduced by Charles Reigeluth. Jean Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology appears in this paper, along with the Gestalt Theory, introduced by Max Wertheimer. B. F Skinner’s well known Operant Conditioning is covered. Lastly, but not least, is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. All of these theories are different, and shows how each individual scientist believes the children in their community learned and developed. Theories of Early Learning People may learn in many different ways. Many scientists have their own thoughts of how children learn, develop, and perceive the world around them. There are a few basic principles to learning that most people and scientists would agree on, though. The first is that a person can learn through the context of what he or she is reading or experiencing (Driscoll, 2006). When a person reads a sentence by itself, it may not make as much sense as it would if it had other sentences around it or if the person knew background information. People will try to make sense of such sentences with other experiences in their lives or understandings they have made about something else that could pertain to the sentence they just read. The conclusions they come up with could be completely different from the true meaning of the sentence. People need other information to make sense of what they are reading and learn what they should be learning. The second principle is that people learn by being active in what they are learning. If a person tells a child something, the child will most likely forget it. If a person shows a child something, the child is more likely to remember it. If a person involves a child, however, the child will understand it (Driscoll, 2006). The third principle is that people learn by working in groups. It tends to be easier for a child to work through something if that child has someone else’s perspective. Different strengths can be brought to the activity because each child has a different point of view and a different thought about what is happening with the activity. The fourth and final principle is that learning is reflective. Students do better the second time a situation is revealed to them if they get feedback from the first time they encountered the situation. If students know they spelled a word wrong on a spelling test, they most likely will not repeat the same mistake (Driscoll, 2006). Scientists have been studying the way they believe children and students learn. A scientist named John Anderson introduced ACT (Kearsley, 2011). ACT suggests that learning comes from three types of memory. The declarative memory stores information that is factual and what the child associated with that information. The procedural memory reminds children of how they behaved to the conditions or actions that they have stored in the declarative memory. The child’s mind thinks that if something happens, there is something specific to be done because of what happened. The working memory is the memory that the child uses every day. In this learning theory, children are generalized, making them use the responses in their procedural memory in other events or experiences. The responses are discriminated, to make them more specialized. The responses are later strengthened, to make it easier for the child to recall them. Research shows that facts are retrieved more easily and quickly if the responses are repeated many times (Cooper, 2009). A scientist known as Charles Reigeluth introduced The Elaboration Theory (Kearsley, 2011). The Elaboration Theory suggests that a child most easily learns a subject if the subject is broken down into smaller subjects that are less complex. This theory suggests that a person must teach a child to add before the child can be taught to multiply because the child must understand that multiplication is adding numerous times. The Elaboration Theory is a step-by-step process (University of South Alabama, 2009). Jean Piaget is a scientist who introduced Genetic Epistemology (Kearsley, 2011). Genetic Epistemology suggests that an infant has specific skills, known as schemas, which guide the child through the child’s environment. An example of a schema is that children know how to pick up their rattle and stick it to their mouth. When a child finds a parent’s watch, that child will transfer the schema to the new object. This is assimilation. When the child finds something too large to fit inside the child’s mouth it will develop a new schema. This is called accommodation. All these actions put together signify adaptation. When a child can adapt to its environment, it is easier for the child to understand it (Boeree, 2006). The next theory is the Gestalt Theory, introduced by Max Wertheimer (Kearsley, 2011). The Gestalt Theory revolves around shapes, patterns, and whole pictures. Wertheimer believed that for people to learn, they must use their brain intensely. He made pictures that were actually two pictures meshed into one. It made the brain of the person look more deeply into the picture to find each picture inside. These activities made it easier for children to problem solve in school (Atherton, 2010). B. F. Skinner introduced Operant Conditioning (Kearsley, 2011). Skinner believed that everything a person learned was from experience. Skinner thought that he could change the way a baby reacted to a rat, and it worked. He showed the baby a rat. The baby played with the rat and did not fear it. When Skinner gave the baby the rat a second time, he produced a loud noise that startled the baby. When Skinner showed the baby the rat once more, the baby was scared of it because the baby had associated the rat with the noise that startled him (Levine, 1999). Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory (Kearsley, 2011). Bandura thought children learned by observing, imitating, and modeling what other children do. He tested his theory by placing a child in a room alone, with toys and games in the room. He told the child he could play with anything that was in there. When he left the child did not move. Later he sent another child in the room. That child began to play with the toys and the games. When the second child left, the first child began to play with the toys. The first child observed the second, and then imitated his actions (Learning Theories, 2008). Many people have different ideas and perspectives about how people learn, develop, and behave. Everyone is involved with other people. Everyone spends time observing other people. People develop their own thoughts as to why the human race acts the way it does. All these theories are common because they all suggest that people’s environment, peers, and resources are the main contributions to how they learn and understand what is going on around them. References http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/learn.htmSocial Learning Theory (Bandura)

Metaphysical Poetry Essay

Metaphysical poetry arose as a reaction to the extremes of Petrarchism; one problem with Petrarchan poems is a kind of predictability-the conceit is found, presented, & elaborated, but there are few subsequent surprises. Donne and his followers like to catch us off-guard, change direction, etc., to foil expectations. Metaphysical poetry is, in general, characterized by its ingenuity, intellectuality, and frequent obscurity. In terms of subject matter, metaphysicals reject not only Petrarchan rhetoric but also the pose of abject worship of the mistress which sonneteers had inherited via Petrarch from the troubadours; in its place they put sexual realism and an interest in introspective psychological analysis of the emotions of love and religion (sometimes expressing the one in terms of the other, and sometimes actually being metaphysical in subject matter too). These poets showed a penchant for the novel and the shocking, and relished obscurity, rough verse, strained imagery, and at their best can be startlingly effective. Donne set the pattern by writing in a diction & metre modelled on the rough give-and-take of actual speech, and usually organized his poems in the dramatic and rhetorical form of an urgent or heated argument (with reluctant mistress, intruding friend, God, Death, himself). Employed a subtle and often deliberately outrageous logic; realistic, ironic, and sometimes cynical in his treatment of the complexity of human motives, whether in matters of love or religion. Reputation-decline in 18th-19th centuries during which time they were seen as interesting but perversely ingenious and obscure eccentrics.; big upsurge in the 20th due to the favourable press from the likes of T.S. Eliot and Dylan Thomas. Metaphysical Conceit->a highly ingenious kind of conceit widely used by the metaphysical poets, who explored all areas of knowledge to find, in the startlingly esoteric or the shockingly commonplace, telling and unusual  analogies for their ideas. Metaphysical conceits often exploit verbal logic to the point of the grotesque and sometimes achieve such extravagant turns on meaning that they become absurd (e.g. Richard Crashaw’s description of Mary Magdalene’s eyes as â€Å"Two walking baths; two weeping motions,/Portable and compendious oceans†). These conceits work best when the reader is given a perception of a real but previously unsuspected similarity that is enlightening; then they may speak to our minds and emotions with force. Examples of potential metaphysical conceits->love is like an oil change; love is like a postage stamp; love is like a pair of compasses; the soul of a sinner is like a damaged pot. As you can see, the temptation to be merely clever must be hard to resist, while the difficulty in making such a conceit truly effective is quite considerable.

The Odyssey, Books I - IV Essay - 547 Words

In reading the first four books of The Odyssey we see a lot of different struggles going on but once we focus on Telemachus we begin to capture a more metal picture of this main character. Odysseuss son, Telemachus has lost his father, suitors are pursuing his mother, and he is learning how to grow up without the legendary guidance of his great father. Telemachus appears to be a young, lost boy who is trapped in a world that he has no control over. Feelings of being left behind and not getting the recognition he so rightfully deserves to take over the throne, Telemachus will set out on a journey to find the answers he needs. In Book I, Athena, Zeuss daughter, seems to come to Telemachus rescue, in a sense. She then sets off for†¦show more content†¦We learn that even though Telemachus is unsure of himself he would gladly take on being King if Zeus would offer, I would happily be King.... A king will be respected, and his house will flourish...(p. 13). With new found courage you are to leave this hall and go feasting elsewhere. I beg Zeus you shall get what you deserve... (p. 13). In the next three books we see a new strength, guided by Athena, to bring honor back to his home. We still sense his doubt and uncertainty but learns of greater honor and respect for his father on this journey. I think this gives him a renewed confidence that he should take on the role of King, only after proving he is worthy. Athena continues to build home up, You will never be fainthearted or a fool... you have your fathers spirit (p. 27). We also get a greater sense of his feelings towards his mother in Book II. I sense that he feels pity and sadness for her but also knows she is being dishonored and respects her decisions when it comes to choosing a suitor and will defend her rights, once again with guidance from Athena, If you should learn your father alive...if dead...raise a mound for him...give your mother to another husband.. And in defense to his mother can I banish against her will (p. 23). In the remainder of these first 4 books Telemachus encounters other great men that served with hisShow MoreRelatedThe Codes Of Fidelity And Hospitality In Modern Society706 Words   |  3 PagesIn modern society the codes of behavior are described as etiquette that   each society member is expected to follow.  In ancient Greek culture it was very essential to follow codes of behavior. In the first half of odyssey there are several codes of behavior spotted like hospitality, vengenance, fidelity, household loyalty, and reverence. The particular types of codes of behavior that will be discussed in this essay are fidelity and hospitality. 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Invasion, a very broad term, can be coined to a multitude of things and even ideas, especially in our modern culture. Invasions in the Odyssey inform us about the moral principles of Ancient Greek society, that which we can compare to a

Personal Statement And Social Responsibility Essay

Some of the important values identified in statements and artifacts of the organization are: respect, accountability, justice, integrity, altruism, compassion, social responsibility, honesty, courage, collaboration, competence, professional behavior, confidentiality, excellence, community building, rituals, and legacy. These values are expressed in agency’s statements and various artifacts. The Vision statement â€Å"All Children Deserve the Best† acknowledges social responsibility and excellence. The Mission statement states, Partnering with parents and community, we provide a strong educational foundation to prepare children for future success expresses collaboration and social responsibility. Agency’s Parent Handbook has all the relevant information for parents to get familiar with the rules, procedures, expectations, and recourses thus articulating accountability as the main value. Classroom Manual assists staff working with children and families, understand the requirements to work with children, families, and staff, thus expressing competency and accountability. Personal Policies discuss values such as fairness, integrity, professional development, staffs benefits, staff hiring process. Code of Professional Conduct requires professional behavior that meets the standards aligned with the NAEYC professional code. The values expressed are respect, honesty, accountability, concern for others, and courage. 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The Civil Rights Movement During The 20th Century

Throughout the 20th century, African- Americans fought for the right to vote and went into great strengths to receive the equal power as a white American. The Civil Rights Movement was the starting point for many African-Americans to gain there full rights in the United States. The Civil Rights movement was the challenge to segregation that caused laws that separated blacks and whites. With this movement not only was the goal achieved to end racial segregation in the United States, but the Voting Rights of 1965 was modified to help as many individuals as possible. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 states the prohibition of the states and their political subdivisions from imposing voting qualifications or prerequisites to voting, or the procedures that deny the right of a U.S. citizen to vote because of race, color, or membership in a language minority group. However, this movement was not simple to go through. There were many acts of protest set off by both parties such as sit ins, boyco tts, and marches which sometimes ended in violence. Nonetheless, African-Americans had finally got the American Dream to vote in the United States and have equal power compared to a white American. However, 51 years later since the Voting Rights Act was passed, African- Americans still face racial discrimination in certain parts of the Country which leads us to question will there ever be an end to racial discrimination. According to the OED racism is discrimination that is directed againstShow MoreRelatedThe Jim Crow Laws And School Segregation810 Words   |  4 Pageseverywhere in the 20th century, and the population most affected by this were African Americans. Two of the most critical injustices committed in America during the 20th century were the development of the Jim Crow laws and school segregation. 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Black Women vs Hip-Hop free essay sample

Crystal Smith once wrote that Images of black women In hip-hop culture make It more likely for them to be viewed as targets to be defaced and abused. This statement Is confirmed true there are many African American women In the hip-hop culture that are disrespected or abused In some type of way during the making of a video or even the lyrics of a song. There are many ways African American women of the hip-hop culture are being abused and disrespected. Some video women or as others would call them Video Vixens start off as stripers.The artists go out to these strip clubs see the women and ask them to be in their video. The women accept any offer and will do anything the artist asks them to do Just to make fast money. These women want to become famous and believe doing these disgraceful things to themselves will help them achieve this goal. The women are being disrespected by the things they are asked to do in these videos like the things they are asked to wear and the dances they are asked to do. In the article HIP-HOPs Betrayal of Black Women, Jennifer McMullen has strong views.She comments on how African American women are being betrayed by hip-hop, by the African American culture, and by their community. She also states how many hip-hop figures make excuses for why hip-hop continues with such a great, bold disrespect for African American women. Although hip-hop betrays African American women, in many ways there are still some African American women that go along with the male point-of-view. African American women that support this type of behavior from hip-hop are betraying their own kind and are losing this battle against hip-hop also.McMullen starts the article with Kevin Bowels statement on why hip-hop objectifies African American women. McMullen writes But Just as it was unfair to demonic men of color in the asses solely as wild-eyed radicals when what they wanted, amidst their fury, was a little freedom and a little power, today It Is wrong to categorically dismiss h ip-hop without taking into serious consideration the socioeconomic conditions that have led to the current state of affairs. Or, to paraphrase the late Tuba Shaker, we were given this world, we did not make it (214).Powell has a weak excuse for the disrespect towards women. McMullen writes So we were given this world, we did not make it; does that mean we cannot try to change the minds of others or the culture as a whole (214). One would agree with Tuba Shaker but we should improve what we were given instead of making situation worse. There should be a point where we overcome this world we were given. We should try to change the minds of others or the culture as a whole. Not all rappers in hip-hop treat women in these cruel ways. McMullen states Hip-hop artists like Tall Swell and Common arrest themselves as conscious alternatives, yet they remain passive in the face of unrelenting women-hating bravado from mainstream artists (214). Although, hip-hop has artist, who cares, respect and do not degrade women these artist still look up to the women-hating artist. These artists give credit for the type of music and videos other artist unlike themselves put out for society. The positive credits for the these songs.McMullen writes Most so-called conscious artists appear to care more about their own acceptance by mainstream artists than wanting to make positive hangers in the culture (214). These artists advertise themselves are conscious aware, but cannot or do not want to change the negative affects of hip-hop music. Women should not have to hear words like as McMullen writes about a lyric for the rapper Jay-Z l pimp hard on a trick, look Buck if your leg broke pitch, hop up on your good foot (215). Most rappers today are not as cruel as Jay-Z was in his earlier years. Jay-Z in fact no longer say these types of things, maybe he has realized that he does not need to degrade, and disrespect women to be a famous artist. Words like these are rash and should never be spoken at all, especially towards women. McMullen states that Hip-hop artist Eve, who describes herself as a pit bull in a skirt, makes an appearance in the Sporty Thieves video for Pigeons, one of the most hateful misogynistic anthems in hip-hop.Her appearance displays her unity with the women branded pigeons, but with the men who label them (215). Eve is in this video not as a pigeon but as a supporter of the rappers who are calling the other women pigeons. Her appearance is disrespectful to herself and women as a whole. There re many female rappers in hip-hop; many of them are standing with the same team that writes such harsh lyrics towards women.McMullen writes, This is a heartbreaking example of how hip-hop encourages men to act collectively in the interest of male privilege while dividing women into opposing camps of good and bad or worthy and unworthy of respect (215). Women rappers that are on that same team should realize that they are not special and that eventually their team will objectify them with that same disrespect. In conclusion, McMullen is using this article to let it be known how some AfricanAmerican women believe we are being betrayed by our culture and are looking for ways to take a stand on these issues. But as long as they have some women going along with these disrespectful ways and people like Kevin Powell there will never be a solution or change in this major problem. Maybe if all women took a stand to the hip-hop culture we can overcome some women feelings this disrespect . Rappers only put out what the fans want to hear. Therefore, fans should really listen to the words that these rappers are saying.

Why You Should Not Smoke Essays - Smoking, Tobacco, Habits, Smoke

Why You Should Not Smoke I am sure that you know that smoking harms your body. Then why do you continue smoking? Maybe you do it because you haven?t really become conscious about all the effects that smoking has. There are a lot of reasons why you shouldn?t smoke. Some of them are that smoking affects your health, that you spend a lot of money on cigarettes, and that when you smoke you are not respecting people around you. The first reason why you shouldn?t smoke is that smoking affects your health. If you smoke, your physical condition will be negatively affected, so it will be very difficult for you to succeed in sports. Also, smoking produces lethal diseases like cancer and reduces the length and quality of your life. Maybe you don?t notice all the physical effects of smoking immediately, but you surely will be sorry one day. The second reason why you shouldn?t smoke is because of all the money that you spend on it. Maybe you start smoking only when someone offers you a cigarette, but there will be a day when you will feel the need of a cigarette. By this time, you will pay whatever to smoke, and each time you will smoke more, so you will spend more money. All the money you would spend on cigars could have be spent in something better, don?t you think? The last reason why you shouldn?t smoke is out of respect for the people around you. When you smoke, you not only harm yourself, but you also harm all the people around you. So you mustn?t be selfish; you should at least avoid smoking in front of people who don?t smoke. Also, many people don?t like the cigarette?s smell, so they won?t enjoy your company. Would you like that? I have said just some reasons of why you shouldn?t smoke, so I hope that now those of you who smoke are able to think a little and try to make a smart decision. In addition to all the reasons I?ve said, I would like you to think about how much you love yourself and then whether you want to continue harming yourself. Think also about all the people who love you, like your family who doesn?t want to see you suffering or sick. If you decide to continue smoking, what a pity. But if you decide to stop smoking, congratulations! Remember that ?If you can dream it, you can do it.?